Documents used in researching this project

This study has not been carried out with the rigour which would usually characterise an academic research subject. Nevertheless considerable experience, reading and discussion has informed its background.

Set out below are some of the documents I have used in my background reading and research. I hope they might be useful to those with an interest in this subject. They have not been grouped or organised nor, of course, should the listing be considered a complete coverage of the subject. I would be grateful to learn of any additional references which are considered to be relevant or interesting.

The illustration above is a detail from one of a set of traditional brass weights, and bear the stamps of the Municipality confirming their accuracy in the year of the stamp which range between 1335 and 1358 AH – approximately 1916 to 1938 AD on this example.

Finally, at the bottom of the page is a brief but necessary reference to a Muslim’s obligations, calendar and linear measurement and their relevance in the Arabic world, together with a list of abbreviations used in these papers.

My research and reading includes, but is not limited to the following…

Definition	References in alphabetic order
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Obligations

There are five obligations for a Muslim: to

• recite the shahada – the statement of belief in God,
• pray to God five times a day,
• fast for the holy month of Ramadhan,
• give zakat, or alms to the poor, and
• to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his lifetime

Prayers

The importance of prayers in the Muslim’s world can not be overestimated. A Muslim must pray five times a day, preferably congregationally, in a local mosque unless he or she has a good reason not to. The prayers are led by an Imam facing the direction indicated by the qibla – the prescribed direction of the ka’ba at Mecca in Saudi Arabia. Notice of the prayers, adhan, is given from the mosque immediately prior to the time for the prayers and is a familiar sound in Muslim countries.

Prayers, in their formal sense given below, together with more informal expressions to Allah, are common as Muslims go about their daily tasks. For instance, very few initiatives are begun without a quick recitation of ‘In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful’ – the phrase which begins every verse of the Holy Quran but one.

The timing of prayers is governed by the lunar calendar and the movements of the sun. Prayers are:

early morning prayer – salat al-fajr

which can be offered over a total period of about two hours beginning about an hour before dawn when the first glimmerings of dawn appear, and is generally considered pre-dawn prayers;

mid-day prayer – salat al-dhuhr

which is offered after work for the day has begun and is particularly aimed at seeking Allah’s guidance, prayers preferably made in conjuction with others at prayer. It begins from the time the sun begins to decline from its zenith to mid-way to its setting;

mid-afternoon prayer – salat al-asr

which is taken as a break from work to remember Allah. It runs from directly after the al-dthur prayers to sunset;

sunset prayer – salat al-maghrib

which is taken directly after sunset, as the day moves to its end, and extends until the glow of the sun disappears from the horizon; and the

evening prayer – salat al-isha

which last from the end of the al-maghrib prayer to the salat al-fajr.

Friday is the holy day for Muslims. It is the day that there is an increased need if not requirement for communal prayer, and salat al-dthur is the time which seems to be the most important communal event of that day.

As mentioned above there are certain conditions under which a Muslim does not have to pray, generally these are related to sickness, pregnancy and travel when the al-dthur and al-asr as well as the al-maghrib and al-isha which may be taken together.

The purpose of the prayers is to join a Muslim to Allah throughout the day, linking the social and religious aspects of life and asserting the continuity there is in this relationship.

Muslims carry out a ritual ablution, wudhu, before praying as required by Sura 9 of the Quran.

When ye rise up to prayer, wash your faces and your hands and arms to the elbows, and wipe your heads and your feet to the ankles.

Before praying, whether in private or public, all Muslims wash themselves as they are required to be clean for prayer, this form of prayer being demonstrated to them by Muhammad at Mecca and Medina. First washed are the hands, then the mouth, nose, face, the arms – first the right and then the left – up to the elbow, and then the hair is wetted. When that is finished the feet are washed – again the right and then the left – up to the ankles.

The practice of praying together strengthens the social bonds of the local community. Once a week, on Fridays, all work ceases and the people of the larger community meet together to pray at the central mosque. This draws together the whole town and affords the opportunity for all citizens to come in contact with each other.

At Eid, twice a year, prayers are said outside the town in a large area enabling both the townspeople and those from the neighbouring communities to come together in prayer. It is strongly believed that regular, congregational worship promotes social relations in an atmosphere of equality and love, and is a crucial device for purifying and unifying the human race.

The prayers are performed facing the direction of the qibla in Mecca, and the Muslim goes through a sequence of prayers standing, bowing and kneeling. There is nearly always a prayer mat kept for individuals to use in prayer, and often the direction of Mecca is marked within the area used for prayer.

Prayers are not always given in the mosque and individuals are free to worship at home: in fact, the women of the house normally worship at home where they have the additional responsibility of instructing their children in prayer from an early age. When more than one person prays within a house they generally line up, shoulder to shoulder, in a suitably large space facing the qibla with, sometimes, a single person in front to lead the prayer.

There are a large number of resources on the Internet and elsewhere which I recommend you read to obtain a better understanding of the importance of prayer in the daily life of the Muslim. As you will see in the notes I’ve made in these pages, this relationship is central to the organisation of the Islamic house and planning.

Fasting

Muslims fast during the Holy month of Ramadhan, the ninth month of the Islamic year. Complete abstinence from food and drink during daylight hours is required during this month. The purpose of fasting is to remind Muslims of their sympathy for the needy and the poor, to teach restraint from excesses of food and drink, and to curb the more animal side of man for which additional prayers are prescribed to bring him nearer to God by abstemption from evil deeds and desires.

Alms giving

The practice of alms giving – zakat – was established as setting apart one fortieth of a Muslim’s annual savings in money or kind. Zakat was then used to benefit the poor and needy, employees, slaves, debtors, those who struggle in the cause of God, strangers stranded on their way and anybody having a claim to charity. It is not considered as a tax but rather as a loan to God which He will repay many times over.

Pilgrimage

It is the duty of every Muslim to travel to Mecca once in his life – provided that he has the means to do so – and this is preferably accomplished on an important occasion such as one of the Eids. The main Eid – Eid Al Adha or Eid Al Kabir – is that which is preferred for the major pilgrimage, and a minor pilgrimage is performed preferably during the Eid Al Fitr.

The ceremonies are actually carried out between the seventh and tenth days of the month of Dhul Hejja and consist of:

• a circuit around the ka’ba in Mecca,
• running between the two small hills of Safa and Marwa,
• assembling on the ninth day at the hill of Arafat twelve miles to the east of Mecca, and
• offering sacrifices at Mina on the way back to Mecca.

For these activities all Muslims dress in two unsewn white sheets to signify that they are all created equal in the eyes of God, and must abstain from luxuries and gratification of the senses. During this period they are required to indulge in prayer, the praise of God, and self-examination. It can be noticed that, in the periods immediately before and after the Eids, the practical outlook of Muslims towards Islam are reinforced, and this is particularly so with those who make the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Islamic calendar

The Muslim calendar comprises twelve, lunar months:

• muharram
• safar
• rabi’ al-awwal
• rabi’ al-thani
• jamaadi al-awwal
• jamaadi al-thani
• rajab
• sha’baan
• ramadhan
• shawwaal
• dthuw al-qa’dah
• dthuw al-hijjah

The 1st Muharram 1 AH corresponds with the 16th July 622 AD and is the date of the Prophet’s hijra from Mecca to Yathrib which, later, became known as Medina.

At the end of the holy month of Ramadhan there is the holiday of Eid Al Fitr which falls on the 1st Shawwal, and this is followed approximately seventy days later by the Eid Al Adha which is celebrated on the 10th Dhul hajja.

Because the months are lunar, the Islamic year is approximately eleven days shorter than the Gregorian calendar used in the West. The significance of this is that the seasons enjoyed in the West are not reflected in the Islamic year – each of the Islamic months will fall within a Gregorian season approximately once every thirty-three years. All the months and, notably, Ramadthan – the month of fasting during daylight hours – will fall within the long, hot summer months between two and three times during the average person’s lifetime, and a similar number during the shorter, cold winter months.

The beginning of the Islamic month is not properly understood by some Western observers. Although Arabic astronomy was expert long before the West, and the calculations for lunar risings can be accurately calculated, in accordance with fiqh tradition, the beginning of a lunar month depends essentially on physical factors, particularly the actual sighting of the moon. Hence the difficulty in establishing an Islamic calendar which is accurate around the Islamic world.

Measurement

I should like to add a note on measurements. Today measurements in the Gulf are made using the Imperial or Metric systems. Where countries have a strong north American influence it is still common for measuring to be in feet and inches, however many countries have adopted the Metric system, influenced by their links with Europe which uses the Metric system. The use of Letter or A4 paper sizes is where the system chosen can usually first be spotted on a site, but specification of materials can be quite complex with inconsistencies between items created by the coexistence of both systems.

Feet and inches was used as measurement in Qatar for some time. The qadm and busa were the customary method of measuring until the European standards based on metric systems were introduced. However the old Imperial system continued and, to some extent, still does with the older generations reinforced by the new north American influences in the region.

Historically, the common unit of measurement was the cubit, a unit which has been in use for thousands of years. The reason for mentioning the cubit here is that it was specified by the Prophet and it is, therefore, important to know it’s size in relation to historical building.

The length of the cubit varies slightly due to a number of factors, mostly to do with the accuracy of standardisation and the large area within which the cubit was used. At it’s simplest, and depending upon which source you take, the cubit can be said to vary from approximately 450mm to 543mm. The lower figure of 450mm is given by Hakim and, perhaps, relates only to measurement in Tunisia. In Mesepotamia the cubit varied between 522mm and 532mm and, in Persia, between 520mm and 543mm.

The ‘standard’ cubit was determined in Egypt to be six (hand) palm widths. But there was also a ‘royal’ cubit of seven palm widths and the relationship between them is considered important. For the purposes of my work here, the royal cubit may be ignored.

Abbreviations

ACC	Arab Co-operation Council – Egypt, Iraq, Jordan and North Yemen
AGCC	Arabian Gulf Co-operation Council – alternative name for CCASG
AGFSC	Arab Gulf States Folklore Centre
ATO	Arab Towns Organisation
CCASG	Co-operation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf – United Arab Emirates, Bahrein, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and Saudi Arabia
CSO	Central Statistics Office
EEC	European Economic Community
EPC	Environmental Protection Committee
ESD	Engineering Services Department of the Ministry of Public Works
FAO	Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations
GCC	Gulf Co-operation Council – alternative name for CCASG
IDTC	Industrial Development Technical Centre
IMF	International Monetary Fund Centre
ISHP	Intermediate Staff Housing Project
JICA	Japan International Cooperation Agency
LDC	Non-OECD countries excluding the USSR, Cambodia, China, Eastern Europe, Cuba, Laos, Mongolia, North Korea and Vietnam
LNG	Liquefied Natural Gas
LPG	Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MEW	Ministry of Electricity and Water
MMA	Ministry of Municipal Affairs
MPW	Ministry of Public Works
NDOD	New District of Doha
NLG	Natural Liquefied Gas
NHA	National Health Authority
NODCO	National Oil Distribution Company
OAPEC	Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries – Algeria, Bahrein, Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria and the United Arab Emirates
OECD	Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development – Europe: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom: and United States, Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand and the United States.
OPEC	Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Latin America – Ecuador, Venezuela; Middle East – Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates; North Africa – Algeria, Libya; West Africa – Gabon, Nigeria; South East Asia – Indonesia.
Q-Chem	Qatar Chemical Company
Q-Ship	Qatar Shipping Company
QACENCO	Qatar Clean Energy Company
QAFAC	Qatar Fuel Additives Company – established 1999
QAFCO	Qatar Fertiliser Company – established 1969