An introduction

There is a long and very strong tradition of the concept of the Islamic garden throughout the Arab world. It is also a well understood concept in the West, though from a slightly different perspective, perhaps because of our lack of a real comprehension of its roots in Islam. Because of the way in which we in the West tend to understand Islamic gardens, it is important to make the distinction between the more classic view of the Islamic Garden and that relating to the gardens of the Arabian peninsula.

But first, a small diversion. I really get depressed when I see in many developments the extent to which landscaping and architecture have moved away from each other. It is now unusual in the West for an architect to be able to design the landscaping of a project as well as the building itself. Regrettably this problem extends to the design of buildings on their sites with architects generally seeking to design iconic buildings, but I will deal with that elsewhere. I am not specifically arguing for architects to design landscaping but at least to work in concert with landscape architects. In the past there have been extremely successful relationships, such as with Lutyens and Jekyll. Nowadays there seems to be competition rather than a joint understanding of the benefits to clients which exist in collaborative design. I believe the the problem of integrated design exists in both professions. I firmly believe that the two disciplines have to work together and produce coordinated schemes. This is as, if not more, important in the Gulf as it is elsewhere. Rant over…

There is a lot of literature relating to landscaping, and I recommend that anybody interested in this subject should comb libraries, bookshops and, of course, the Internet, to see what they might learn. With regard to Islamic gardens I believe it’s particularly important to have a wider perspective, which is why I will digress a little.

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Introversion

First you should be aware that the introversion characteristic of houses in Islamic towns was reflected not only in the development of buildings, but also in the manner in which landscaping was treated. The Islamic town concentrated attention on the internal development of the house, an arrangement which focussed particularly on the courtyard. In the often harsh climate, landscaping was developed within this contained area in a manner that reflected the relationship between a Muslim and his religion. I have touched on this introversion elsewhere and believe it is one of the keys to understanding Islamic architecture and, especially, Islamic garden design. The relationship begins in the private side of the household, and proceeds outwards from there.

By contrast, western design had no compunctions about exposing its designs to the wider world. Certainly there were many with a strong religious component to their work and relationships, but the designs we know tend to be the larger gardens, built by or for people with considerable funds to establish gardens, some of which they would never live to see due to the time taken to establish them.

These were not introverted designs. They were ostentatious designs, designs to be seen by peers and others, designs to impress: the antithesis of the thinking behind Islamic designs.

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Western gardens

The Western landscaping with which we are familiar tends to be the formalised terraces of Italy and France, with their dominance of man over nature, or the exaggerated naturalistic styles of England. I should also add that there is, possibly, a precursor by two hundred years to the naturalistic English gardens at the Villa Lante, Bagnaia, Italy. These gardens visually stretched away from the house in attempts to dominate or make monuments of nature and focus attention on distant sculptings of the landscape, and exercise which took considerable effort in terms of men and horsepower. Another point worth considering is that, because of the scale of the planting, the designers and owners would not have been able to see the full fruits of their exercises in their lifetimes.

Perhaps William Kent is an exception in that it can be argued he took considerable pains to create visual links between house and surrounding landscaping, though he and those whom he influenced, were more concerned with visual effect than practical coordination. In this there is a distinct difference between concentration and focus on nature as an aesthetic interpretation of perfection, and nature as an interpretation of paradise – an aesthetic, compared with a reflective exercise or pursuit.

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Far Eastern gardens

It might be useful to look briefly at Chinese and Japanese garden design as it may be thought there is more of a link between them and Islamic garden design due to the religious component of the two types. The bases of Chinese and Japanese garden design are extremely complex and I can’t say I understand them. What is written here is only done so in order to give a bit more context to what is written about Islamic garden design, so that it is not seen just by comparison with Western garden design.

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Chinese gardens

Chinese gardens historically pre-date Japanese gardens which derived from them, perhaps via Korea. I understand that the essential differences are those caused by their being based on different religions: Chinese gardens were rooted in Confucianism and Taoism, whereas Japanese gardens were more strongly influenced by Bhuddism. In addition to this, Japanese gardens are thought to have had a stronger religious basis than had Chinese gardens.

The Chinese house and garden were seen as unlike in character and were meant to be used differently by their occupants. Not only were they of dissimilar characters, but this difference was consolidated by the physical link between them being structured and strongly defined by doors. In this they might be regarded as similar to many Western gardens, regrettably. It’s possible that the difference might also come about from the house being seen to be different and separate from nature. But Chinese gardens were meant to be enjoyed and lived in, perhaps more as a functional element of the household’s pattern of living. Nor was there the same degree of religious spirit to the Chinese garden compared with its later Japanese cousin. There was, however, a very strong link between painting and the garden brought about through the Taoist influence with its awe of nature.

Confucianism had much to do with relationships rather than laws and is seen to be humanistic or even agnostic in its essence; in fact Confucianism and established religions are not mutually exclusive and, for two thousand years, Confucianism was the main doctrine of China. Taoism, its partner, deals with balance and harmony but is, in a sense – and in contradistinction to Confucianism – more anarchic in its support of the individual or natural societies and not the insitutionalised societies promoted by Confucianism.

The Chinese house tended to be rectangular in form reflecting the materials of its construction, and was usually built around an internal courtyard. The garden was an adjunct of it and had a character dependent upon the owner and its designer. Many were considered to be ‘scholar’ gardens, so-called because they were intended for the pursuit of intellectual, moral or scholarly development. Confucianism introduced the elements of mountains and water to the simpler Taoist informality. Increasing wealth saw the expansion of gardens and, with it, the introduction of pavilions, covered walkways and the introduction of a visual design vocabulary intended to bring a range of feelings to the user of the garden, but what particularly characterised the Chinese garden was

• an insistence on non-geometric planning to replicate nature,
• its use of three design depths, each parallel to the picture plane, and requiring the eye to move from one to another to create the illusion of great depth,
• the manipulation of scale to increase the above illusion, and
• the incorporation of four specific elements:
  • rocks,
  • water,
  • buildings, and
  • plants.

Japanese gardens developed to a large extent on the concepts noted above. The philosophical or religious basis of Chinese gardens were adapted and developed in a manner suited both to the smaller sites available in Japan, the colder climate and, of course, the different socio-religious circumstances.

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Japanese gardens

Japanese gardens were, like Chinese gardens, an attempt to create a utopian space suited to relaxation and contemplation, a space that could be used and enjoyed, particularly by those living in troubled times.

In considering Oriental gardens it has to be borne in mind that the vocabulary we in the West use in their design – such as form, texture, sound, motion and colour – are not as important in design and enjoyment as aesthetic – philosphical and religious – and symbolic elements. These are key concepts used in the overall composition of the garden and might not be looked for by a Western observer. In this I think there is some similarity with Islamic design. Almost every Japanese garden incorporates elements relating to water, islands of stone, plants and garden accessories, elements that relate to Japan and the development there of Zen Bhuddism introduced in the thirteenth century. The late Dr. Kawana described the Japanese garden as having a number of intrinsic features.

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Symbolism

Water and islands are features symbolising the islands of Japan and the surrounding sea fed by its rivers, though it is not important for water to be actually in the garden: water features may be created with dry materials.

Symbols of auspiciousness and longevity are often incorporated into gardens. Cranes, tortoises and pine trees are three such symbols of longevity, and the pine and bamboo are symbols of auspiciousness.

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Aesthetic

Much of the aesthetics we understand in the West can be read in Japanese gardens, particularly those informed by Zen Bhuddism which forms the basis of most Japanese gardens. These include:

• simplicity,
• lack of artifice,
• elegance,
• subtlety, and
• tranquility and the like

which are key elements in Zen philosophy and are at the root of Japanese garden design. In particular, and in contradistinction to Islamic design, there is a preference for asymmetry, an aspect of garden aesthetics associated with a lack of perfection in form and shape as well as in a preference for odd rather than even numbers.

• mu is a state of simplicity or ‘nothingness’,
• koko relates to the importance of age brought about by quality and time and accompanied by mellowness and maturity,
• shizen is created by the lack of artifice,
• yugen is the achievement of profundity with mystery, the use of darkness to create stillness and tranquility and the utilisation of the technique of
• miegakure or avoidance of full expression which requires the hiding of a part of the whole, in addition to which
• wabi, austerity,
• sabi, elegant simplicity, and
• shibui, tastefulness should be added to
• seijaku or the attainment of stillness, quiet, and tranquility.

So, with these the Japanese garden strives to create a particular feeling or character in the observer, one that is

• specific to that particular location, one that
• reflects the seasons and variations of nature, and one that
• reflects the variety of philosphical and cultural characteristics of the Japanese.

There are a number of different types of Japanese gardens as might be expected, but they may be considered as comprising two types:

• those designed to be seen from a static position and which might be considered to be more contemplative, and
• those designed to be enjoyed from a moving position, usually a path;

neither of them use any form which could not be seen in a natural situation and, generally, they must also be entered to be experienced. This latter requirement gives rise to the use of fences and screens to define, focus, hide and reveal.

Planting in Japan made use of the wide variety of natural plants found there, but you should be familiar with the concepts of

• emulating nature in the overall design of the garden,
• ensuring that every element and its placing has meaning and contributes to the overall balance and harmony of the garden,
• having the garden reflect all seasons of the year,
• using rocks and dry material to simulate water, both static and flowing, and
• the use of plants to block near-by, non-natural elements and focus the viewer’s eyes on far, natural elements, a concept known as ‘borrowed scenery’ as it effectively incorporates external natural features as elements within the owner’s private garden.

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Islamic gardens

Elsewhere I noted that Islam swept outward from Arabia, establishing itself over a large geographical area in which a variety of societies and traditions pre-existed. As a consequence, the architecture and landscaping which then became known as ‘Islamic’, demonstrate a wide diversity of styles responding to those geographies, climates and societies, while overlain by a number of ideals specific to Islam. In short, Islamic design varies, though is linked by a common unity of spirit. And this applies, of course, to Islamic gardens, though I’m likely to make a number of generalisations in attempting to sum this up – for which I apologise in advance.

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Paradise

There is a strong association between the concept of Islamic gardens and paradise. The Persian word, pairidaeeza, is a combination of two words that mean ‘surrounding wall’, thus the concept of paradise is of a garden or gardens, surrounded by a wall, isolating those within and enabling them to enjoy the features established within the wall.

The word ‘paradise’ is derived from the Persian, pairidaeeza, arriving in English via Greek and Latin. In Arabic the name for a heavenly garden is jannah, of which the highest level of garden is firdaws, most commonly used in the phrase jannaat al-firdaws – gardens of paradise.

The characteristics we associate with Islamic gardens are mostly based on Persian gardens which existed before Islam moved out of the Arabian peninsula. The concept of Paradise being a garden pre-dates Islam, Christianity and Judaism by thousands of years. Originating with the Sumerians, paradise gardens were also a feature the Babylonians reserved for their gods, introducing two of what were to become basic elements of an Islamic garden: trees and water. With its adoption by the Greeks, Paradise became associated in the Abrahamic religions with Heaven.

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Characteristics of Islamic gardens

By contrast with Western landscaping, but with some similarity to Japanese, Islamic landscaping was introverted and miniaturised in some parts of the Islamic world where it set out to represent the paradise described in the Holy Quran. Not only that, but the injunction against naturalistic representation in Islam generally avoided the psychological projection of the viewer from the site by omitting designed references to objects found outside the site.

This relationship of landscaping with architecture was essentially reflective, perhaps being best epitomised in the Western mind with the development of the Alhambra in Granada, carried out at a peak in the development of arts and thought in Islamic Spain. In particular the use of water as an essential element of the design – perhaps more important than planting – demonstrated a sophistication and sensibility to the introspective nature of Islam that has rarely been matched. Views from the Alhambra permitted sight of the outlying scenery and, in this manner, reinforced the delicacy of the interior development of the palace, and its containment and relationship with nature. Some experts believe it to be the most perfect marriage of buildings with internal and natural landscaping.

Having said that, the Alhambra we see today is the product of later development. Following the success of the reconquista which saw Christian Spain retake Granada and the Alhambra in 1492, the Alhambra was left to deteriorate for a long period of time and was only brought back to life in the last century under the combination of an increasing number of European travellers and Victorian romanticism. Because of this we can not guarantee that what we now see replicates the original design.

One final note on the Alhambra is that it, together with buildings such as the Chehel Sutun pavilion in Isfahan, demonstrate the blurring of internal and external spaces, a feature not just of buildings in hot climates, but where philosophical ideals create the conditions which join man with nature, and reflect this in their structures and planting.

Before I leave this area I should also mention Mughal gardens. Earlier I noted that Islam moved out of the Arabian peninsula and, adapting traditional Persian gardens, introduced them to Moorish Spain in the West and to the Mughal Indian sub-continent. Although Moorish and Mughal landscaping were not coeval, they represented local developments of design under Islamic influence. Both are regarded as incorporating Islamic gardens which, of course, continued within Persia and elsewhere.

The Mongols moved into Persia in the thirteenth century, then on to the Indian sub-continent taking with them the concept of the Islamic garden with them, gardens referred to as Mughal, perhaps the most famous being the Taj Mahal.

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Basis of Islamic garden design

Referring to the ideals I mentioned earlier, the basis of Islamic design is, or should be, rooted in three concepts:

• the Holy Quran, where there are a number of verses dealing with the Islamic concept of Heaven,
• the hadith, the traditions, teachings and sayings of the Prophet, and
• the arid geography of much of the area in which Islam developed and gained supremacy.

The reference I made in the previous paragraph suggests that there are seven basic considerations for an Islamic garden:

diversity,

is considered to be more satisfying when achieved through an element of unity. There is interplay between the real and ideal, practicality and fantasy, tangible and symbolic, physical and metaphysical, and urban and natural;

beauty,

and aesthetic qualities are seen as important in Islam. Traditionally, artistic endeavours have developed but have always been seen to be an integral part of life. Beauty is not a luxury in Islam, but a goal, which is why it is not wrong to decorate the interior of a building while keeping the façade plain: this is a direct expression of the richness of the soul and the humble appearance of the body;

conservation,

especially as an element of environmental concern, is a basic tenet of Islam. The use of water, particularly, is carefully controlled and, when used, there are likely to be three factors in operation: the need to humidify the area in which it is located; its function as an element of a design bringing reflection or mobility and sparkle to that design; and its aural quality, capable of producing a range of sounds into a relatively quiet environment;

contextuality,

or the requirement to have a garden designed in response to other elements of architecture or planning. There must be an orderly spatial plan in Islamic cities, even if this is not apparent from a Western perspective;

individualism,

is considered central to Islam, where each person is responsible directly to God. It follows that, within the common objectives of a particular society, individual responses to design are the rule, bearing in mind that individuals also have a duty not to harm their neighbours’ enjoyment;

multiple-use,

is a concept that is central to the Islamic garden. A garden should provide food and water not only for the inhabitants but also animals and birds; its trees and shrubs will produce fruit and herbs as well as shade, movement and scent and, where possible, a range of active and passive activities should be accommodated within it; and

moderation,

a subject I touched on previously, relates to the need to maintain a balance of man with nature, and neither to impose a form of rational will on nature as occured in France, nor to submit to a concept of nature as happened in England.

These appear to be the basis on which the older, traditional Islamic gardens were premised, as well as forming a proper basis for new design.

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Necessary requirements of gardens

Such considerations, together with the descriptions set out in the Holy Quran and hadith, produce the five elements of design suggested by Hala Nassar necessary for incorporation into a garden if it is to resemble the descriptions of the Garden of Paradise. These are:

Quadripartite layout

The traditional design of an Islamic garden with which we are familiar was developed in Persia and, later, is likely to have been based on both the Holy Quran as well as the need to irrigate the garden. Its two-dimensional characteristic lies in its quadripartite design, by which it is divided by four water courses which are said to represent the rivers to be found in paradise – 047:015:

…in it are rivers of water incorruptible; rivers of milk of which the taste never changes; rivers of wine, a joy to those who drink; and rivers of honey pure and clear.

These four rivers tend to be brought together at a central fountain or pool, a feature and focus of the garden.

Water

Water is a central element of Islamic garden design where it has both a physical and metaphysical importance. Islam was established and grew in a part of the world which has a hot, harsh climate and where water brings life to the desert and those who live in it. The Holy Quran talks of the garden – 056:031:

…wherein are two fountains flowing.

and – 055:050:

…water flowing constantly.

and these concepts, both conceptually and physically, are central to the use of water in the garden.

Vegetation and shade

In hot, arid climates the promise of water is a design imperative, but so too is the concomitant requirement for shade. The Holy Quran promises that ̵ 004:57:

…We shall admit them to shades, cool and ever deepening.

The Holy Quran contains many references and allusions to the features of the gardens that await the faithful. But it is not just shade that it promised. Coolness, lush greenery, fruit and beauty are also features of the garden. These help to create a setting for rest and enjoyment, providing fruits and shade, colour and movement.

Pavilions

Within the garden the Holy Quran promises that there will be pavilions from which the faithful will be able to enjoy the garden ̵ 039:020:

But those who keep their duty to their Lord, for them are lofty halls with lofty halls above them, built (for them), beneath which rivers flow. (It is) a promise of Allah. Allah faileth not His promise.

and – 018:031:

For them will be Gardens of Eternity; beneath them rivers will flow; they will be adorned therein with bracelets of gold, and they will wear green garments of fine silk and heavy brocade: They will recline therein on raised thrones. How good the recompense! How beautiful a couch to recline on!

and – 055:054:

Reclining upon couches lined with silk brocade, the fruit of both the gardens near to hand.

These pavilions are specified as being elevated and constructed over running water and from which good views of the gardens are to be enjoyed as are, of course, the pavilions themselves and the life lived within them.

Walls and gates

Paradise, however large or small it may be, is surrounded by gated walls – 039:073:

And those who feared their Lord will be led to the Garden in crowds: until behold, they arrive there; its gates will be opened; and its keepers will say: ‘Peace be upon you! well have ye done! enter ye here, to dwell therein.’

From a physical point of view, enclosure has three facets to it:

• there is a need to keep out the encroaching desert, enabling the area within it to be organised and tended more easily,
• the enclosed area concentrates the eye and mind on the area and activities within, and
• the walls mark ownership, establishing the area as special in some way.

To relate this to the Gulf and the present, visiting one of the many farms in the desert is an interesting event. Approach is made across the open desert where the farm can first be seen as an isolated object, and an increasingly welcoming sight. Entrance is relatively dramatic in the change of environment and, having entered, it can be difficult to imagine what the desert outside is like, so pleasant is it within the farm. Although the purpose of a farm is different, the combination of water, plants and a place to sit and enjoy them is something that can easily give a foretaste of the paradise to come. There must be an element of this understanding in the psychological feeling that Qataris have to their farms and gardens.

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The traditional Islamic garden

So far I have described the elements that go to make up our vision of a traditional Islamic garden, but have done so without describing the physical layout.

This diagram is of a reflecting pool. I have seen a number of them in Iran and I have placed it here as it seems to me a beautifully simple example of the use of water within an urban area. Situated within urban, courtyard houses, the central feature of the courtyard is a slightly raised pool whose surface is contained by a small wall having a circular quadrant top, its edge forming the outside level for the water. This edge device, or similar modern versions, are now popular on what are termed ‘infinity pools’. In a courtyard setting this fine, plane mirror reflects the sky and surrounding buildings but has the added advantage of having water pumped into it from below, the water spilling over the edge into a surrounding channel and running off to water peripheral planting. The curved edge of the upstand glistens from the water run-off, there is a small amount of sound associated with it, and the surface of the water changes through the day. I should add that, like most water devices, it humidifies, and is best suited to dry, arid regions, and not humid regions.

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Gulf planting

One of the saddest sights that can be seen in Qatar are gardens which have been allowed to go to waste. This is particularly true of date palm farms as can be seen in this photograph.

Qataris love gardens and one of the most pleasurable experiences is to sit with friends or family in a date palm farm and talk and eat, by day or night. But time and an increasing population have brought two particular pressures to bear on such gardens:

• saline inundation, and
• commercial pressures.

The abstraction of water from the wells around Qatar has brought increasing salinity. Although the government requires licences for those using wells, it has not been able to prevent the slow increase in salinity of well water with the steady influx of sea water, particularly near the coast.

At the same time the development of urban settlements has meant that land has increased in value. This has made the land on which palm farms sit too valuable to ignore as a resource for the construction of buildings with the effect that they have been allowed to die prior to being redeveloped. In some parts of the world trees are protected and permissions have to be obtained to cut them down. I am not aware of any developments in Qatar which have been able to retain some or all the palm trees as a resource for those living and working in those developments. Instead, landscaping is carried out from scratch and with a plant palette which is not always based on native species, something the government is attempting to deal with.

First of all you should be aware of the most significant factors which influenced traditional Islamic planting and the circumstances under which planting is now carried out. Essentially they are the:

• religious component of Islamic planting, which has much to do with
• the socio-economic conditions under which planting and landscaping is now carried out – both in the private and public sector,
• the strengthening of a secular government with its policies on beautification, and
• the availability of water in quantities which were previously unimaginable.

It is also possible that there was a resistance to planting in public areas even though there are well-defined controls for operating in the public realm, and for the public good. However, I suspect that the absence of water has been the main difficulty. One of the consequences of the above is that, in the old towns and villages, there was no public planting. If there were any plants at all they were tamarix, acacia – a thorny, straggly tree which is able to exist with very little water, mimosa – a form of acacia with yellow flowers to which some are allergic, together with some of the small plants that are able to grow in marginal locations – similar to grass in the West, though much more sparse. To give some idea of what trees can be commonly seen, the photographs above are, from left to right and top to bottom: tamarix, cupressus, mimosa; and ficus nitida, washingtonia and felix dactylifera – the date palm.

Conditions in the Gulf are, and were, relatively simple and harsh. The first use of the courtyard with regard to landscaping was for the provision of productive planting – for fruit and shade. Date palms were usually the first planting within a courtyard but I have also seen oranges and lemons there as well as ficus even though there is no product from it other than shade. I have also seen bougainvillea which I suspect was used as it is relatively hardy, is colourful and has a degree of security associated with it. Here you see some more common sights around Doha.

In Umm Salal Muhammad the housing seems to have been in relatively small plots, perhaps because they were optimised in order to retain use of the areas of valuable rawdha or sweet soil. This provided areas given over to structured planting with date palms in irrigated rows and below them, I believe, plants such as melons were grown with, perhaps vegetables in their season. What, I don’t know.

With regard to decorative plants, bougainvillea, oleander, hibiscus and jasmine were common in the area, and still are and can be seen all over the country both in the public and private sectors. One of the reasons for this is that gardeners tend to share the plants under their care. The result is that there appears to be a small, common palette of plants used on the peninsula. Hibiscus presents usually as a deep red flower against dark green foliage.

Bougainvillea makes a vivid and attractive presentation – though often on the other side of the wall against which it’s planted – and has the additional advantage of providing a high degree of protection through the density of its branches and thorns as well as being useful as a shade plant. These three characteristics can be clearly seen in the upper of these two photographs.

There is a good case for encouraging bougainvillea planting in this manner as it brings considerable attraction to the street scene through its soft form contrasting with boundary walls, its colour and movement. It grows quickly and has a flower head that many find attractive, though not, perhaps, as much as single-headed flowers such as hibiscus.

Oleander presents as a rather large bush, usually with yellow flowers and serves no real purpose other than show. Additionally, it is poisonous. Jasmine, on the other hand, is likely to have been selected not only for its looks, but particularly for its perfume. It is lovely to come across it at night and, bearing in mind how sensitive Qataris are to smell and taste, I can understand why it has become popular.

It’s probable that the relatively small amount of planting had much to do with the lack of water to feed relatively unproductive plants such as floral bushes. In addition to the shortage there would have been, in the towns, a problem with the high salinity levels. Nevertheless, date palms and bougainvillea were relatively common in Doha as were mimosa and the ubiquitous acacia trees which establish themselves relatively easily.

Planting was generally peripheral to the courtyard and, together with the usual collection of chickens and pigeons, tended to lend an agricultural appearance to at least a part of the courtyard unless the developed site had more than one external courtyard, in which case there was a tendency to have one of the courtyards developed to production, the main one being more recreational in character.

I understand that there was vegetable planting in the past, though I’ve not yet been able to quantify it. The traditional dishes of Qatar featured at least onions, the additional spices being bought in from the nearby suq, as would have been rice and the wheat used for the flour which was ground for bread and presumably any vegetables that were needed such as peppers and limes. But the knowledge of suitable plants would have been available as would the plants themselves. Oranges, lemons and limes were grown as were, I’m told, bananas and melons. In fact I can remember a banana tree being taken down in the nineteen seventies and being told it was the last one in Doha, though I also remember doubting it… There are certainly a few banana trees now as well as considerable vegetable planting. I don’t know if the initiative comes from the house owners or from the gardeners who come, in the main, from the Indian sub-continent and seem to have a love of all forms of planting often, as has been my experience, without recourse to asking or listening to the wishes of the house owners.

In considering plants and the ingredients for meals in Qatar – and much else as well – it might be borne in mind that Qatar is situated on what was an extremely busy trade route. There were only two routes along which to move goods from the Indian sub-continent and Far East to Europe: shipping had either to travel

• from the Indian Ocean around the Cape of Good Hope, or
• through the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. For this route there were only two options:
  • through the Gulf and then overland, or
  • through the Red Sea and, after its opening in 1869, the Suez Canal.

Nowadays basic vegetables are grown in many gardens and I believe this replicates traditional practice. Both Qataris and ex-patriates grow for their own use and, in the case of the larger gardens, produce vegetables that are given to family and friends as there are surpluses in season.

Nor do I believe there were many – if any – formal, landscaped gardens in Qatar. This may well have reflected a consequence of the need to give private spaces over to the necessities for running the household. It’s perhaps understandable in the desert developments, but it might have been anticipated that, with the strong influence from the other side of the Gulf, there would have been the type of courtyard design associated with the towns there. But, perhaps not. Those courtyards made considerable use of water, often in the form of reflecting pools; but such use of water tended to be related to dry climates, whereas the climate of the littoral of Qatar is humid maritime. In such a climate it is, perhaps, unlikely that an attempt would have been made to increase humidity with its attendant decrease in comfort.

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Public planting in Qatar

All this changed in the seventies with the first public garden established between the ‘B’ and ‘C’ ring roads south of the centre of Doha, the Al Muntessah gardens. This had become possible with the production of water in large quantities. At first I believe that some of the water used for irrigation was from deep well extraction. But with problems caused by the increasing salinity caused by well water extraction, the water was mixed with desalinated water to reduce the effect of salt build-up in the soil and consequential damage to the planting. For a number of reasons this wasn’t too successful due to the concentration of salts on the soil surface with time, but I shall discuss that elsewhere.

In the eighties or nineties this policy was changed to water obtained from sewage treated effluent. This water was safely produced and its use managed. It was an extremely valuable addition to counter the growing water problem in the State. The application of sewage treated effluent water was relegated to areas where the public wouldn’t have direct access due to concerns for their safety, the planting being mainly associated with structured arrangements along the road system – roundabouts and medians particularly. Previously effluent treated water was used only on some areas of agricultural land. At one stage the Ministry of Municipal Affairs had their workers associated with watering tested to ensure they were not being adversely affected by working with the effluent water. These workers were found to be significantly more healthy than the control group against which they were tested. But I digress…

The first photograph illustrates the character of the first steps in median planting with a single specimen planted lineally along the centre strip. This developed rapidly along medians such as the second photo taken on one of the radial roads serving Doha. This is one of the later developed roads as it was relatively generous in terms of its width. I think I photographed it between the ‘C’ and ‘D’ ring roads south of the centre of Doha. Earlier developed roads such as the Rayyan Road were constrained by existing development so the central reservation could only take palms and lighting systems. Sometimes grass was introduced, the whole system being watered from tankers.

This photograph was taken in the New District of Doha and shows the benefits of a more generous central reservation. Grassed, and with peripheral planting, the median was raised by kerbs designed to inhibit vehicles crossing them, a security innovation in the nineteen eighties that followed an attempt on the life of the Ruler of Kuwait. They were popular areas and were used in the evenings by many inhabitants of Doha as they could have easy access, meet friends and enjoy picnics under the public lighting systems.

This additional water resource enabled the State to begin a planting programme not only of specimen trees and shrubs, but also floral displays, all these on a very large scale. Both private and public gardens in Qatar can have a riot of coloured flowers, attracting insects and, with them, birds; a very much changed environment from that which obtained in the Qatar peninsula only a generation ago.

Traditionally, flowers have been an important element in Arabic literature, both in their scent, in their display and as elements of the gardens in which they are planted. The colours they present offer a strong contrast to the buff colours of the limestone peninsula, and are an obvious source of delight to those using the gardens.

This is so not just for the nationals but is particularly true for expatriates. While nationals have their own gardens, many of the expatriates working in the country don’t. In addition they tend to go to public areas in order to meet fellow countrymen. Forty years ago areas such as the gardens at the airport and roundabouts were the places these expatriates congregated and it was a common sight to see these areas crowded at night with men obviously enjoying these small gardens. Nowadays the practice continues though with far greater choice. But what is also noticeable is the number of families that come out to enjoy the gardens. The Corniche in particular is a real attraction in the evenings, and the gardens in the different parts of the country are well used.

At the same time the State had begun to develop its public planting along many of the main roads in Doha. The favoured plant was the date palm which was established at regular intervals along many of the roads. In the top photograph you see its fruit being harvested by two municipality workers. Note the two colours of the fruit. It’s a different product from the boxes of dates commonly seen in the West, the light-coloured, unripened date being fibrous compared with the dark, ripened, softer fruit. Arabs like to eat them when the dates are half ripe so they can enjoy the different sweetnesses and textures. In the lower photograph you can see dates in a wider range of colours and states of ripeness.

Private gardens, for the most part, follow the character of design on the public areas. The reason for this is threefold, I believe. They replicate – albeit on a minor scale – the planting of public areas, the planting palette available for purchase is limited, and gardeners tend to establish the gardens rather than the owners. There is also a difference between gardens established or developed by ex-patriate tenants compared with nationals. Here you can see grassed areas, peripheral shrub planting – yet to develop, ficus and bougainvillea.

That reminds me that I should have mentioned earlier a very strong initiative from the government. They have a preference for planting native species rather than imported ones. Exactly what constitutes ‘native’ is a matter of some conjecture and debate, but it is reasonable to expect this, at least in public planting.

However, there is another consideration. In the West the changing climate is having an effect on plant selection and their maintenance. This has two important components.

Firstly, the warmer temperatures are allowing non-native plants to be used to effect, increasing the palette available to designers and gardeners. The obverse side of this availability is that some of the native species are now struggling to survive.

Secondly, the amounts of water required to support native plants is increasing dramatically. As the higher temperatures are causing a decrease in water availability, native species become more difficult and expensive to maintain.

If the same effects apply in the Gulf – and I can’t say if or to what extent they might – then there would be an argument to incorporate species more suited to the even higher temperatures that might obtain there. Again there are two considerations for such a policy.

Firstly, the plant species most likely to thrive in an extremely hot climate tend to be considered unattractive in formal situations such as planting in public parks and along roads. Species such as acacia and similar plants are thought of almost as weeds, and species such as cacti are generally small, don’t move and rarely display. I’ve heard them categorised as being boring.

Secondly, the Gulf states generally believe they have the wealth to produce the amounts of water needed to support their industries and residential requirements and may be disinclined to amend present policies.

However, not all areas of the Arabian peninsula have the luxury of the revenues from oil and gas. In April 2007, Yemen announced that it was running out of water and would have to consider moving part of its population out of its capital, San’a. This illustrates what has been known for some time: that climate change and water shortage is having a serious effect on national economies and living standards, and that this will become and increasing problem for hot countries. In fact, it is widely believed that it is likely to lead to war between countries competing for water resources.

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The planting of date palms

For centuries the areas of rawdha soils in the peninsula have been developed for farming. A number of crops were traditionally planted, but in many ways the plant material of preference was the date palm. In Qatar this was treated as a single crop whereas, in other parts of the Arab world such as Iraq, the land on which the date palms were planted was in multiple ownership, each owner planting a crop which created a microclimate under which the smaller plants in different ownership benefitted, with up to four crops being maintained in this way. Sometimes in Qatar other crops were grown under the date palms but, of course, there was only a single ownership.

This photograph, taken from a postcard, one of a number issued by the government in the nineteen sixties or seventies to promote tourism, shows a typical view in a farm with the date palms divided by water channels, and grass being allowed to grow in the area between the trees.

The greatest difficulty with planting on the thin rawdha soils of Qatar is establishing the plants at the outset. Traditionally this was effected in the following manner and using a palm of about two metres in height:

• a hole was dug for the tree pit of about 2 x 2 x 1.5 metres deep. This usually meant that the bedrock had to be dug into;
• the spoil of rock from digging the pit was broken up and some of it placed back in the pit to a depth of no more than 20 centimetres to provide some basic drainage;
• the pit was filled with water and covered with matting for at least 24 hours with the intent of allowing the water to soak into the surrounding soil and bedrock;
• when the water had drained away the root ball of the date palm – about 80 centimetres in diameter – was set in the centre of the pit ensuring that there was at least 30 centimetres from the top of the root ball to the surface;
• the pit was backfilled carefully with the rawdha soil, ensuring that the mixture was properly compacted and watered as the filling and compacting was carried out;
• the area immediately around the palm’s trunk was maintained at a lower level than the surrounding ground level in order to attract and retain moisture to the tree. Traditionally this area was about 1.2 metres in diameter and a small mud retaining wall, about 10 centimetres high was constructed to retain water;
• the tree was watered when the compaction was complete and area surrounding it covered with hessian or a similar material to act as a mulch;
• protection was provided to the trees against the shamal by the use of cane screens, both in order to allow the trees to grow straight as well as reducing evaporation from the surface of the ground; and
• sometimes the tree was propped with canes though this is not now the practice. I am not sure why this is so.

While the above notes are as I remember being told some time ago, I can not guarantee they are accurate.

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Common plants

It is not my intention to cover all the plant material that can be found native in Qatar as that would be impossible for me. There is professional literature such as this which covers the area, and I recommend anybody with an interest in native plant material to refer to them.

Eventually this part of the notes might be organised more usefully but, for the time being, I shall just place here plant material which I feel is most interesting.

Dhanoun

One of the plants which is commonly seen in the desert in Spring is, in fact, a parasite. Dhanoun is a root parasite which commonly attaches itself to the roots of the common desert plants, qataf and shnaan. It is found in the littoral salt marshes around Qatar, growing to a height of over 300mm, and has an attractive display, its flowers ranging in colour from yellow to purple.

Sidr

There is a tree, native to Qatar, which has been adopted in name by the Qatar Foundation which has taken the name, sidra, because of the tradition the tree has in Qatar:

Traditionally the shade of the sidra tree was a retreat for poets and scholars, who gathered beneath its branches to discuss and impart knowledge. The fruit, flowers and leaves of the sidra, whose deep roots allow it to flourish in harsh desert climates, were components in many traditional medicines. All these qualities make the sidra a beloved icon in Qatari history and culture – and an apt symbol for Qatar Foundation, which seeks to be a haven for learning and a source of comfort to the people of Qatar and the region.

The sidra occurs in three forms, one of them wild – ziziphus nummularia, the other two cultivated – ziziphus mauritiana and zizphus spina-christi. My understanding is that they all have the same local name, sidra or sidr, though the wild version differs in being more of a shrub than a tree. The ziziphus mauritiana is larger than the zizphus spina-christi. As mentioned above the fruit of the sidra is eaten and known locally as kanaar and nabq respectively for the ziziphus mauritiana and zizphus spina-christi.

Species selection

I mentioned previously that the State is interested in using plants which are native to the region, one of their difficulties being the perceived unsuitability of some of the species which have been introduced in recent years. I have also written about the likelihood that other countries are going to have to bring in species suited to the warmer climates which are now becoming more frequent with global warming. Qatar, of course, has a hot climate to begin with and this, together with the State’s ability to produce water with the wealth generated by oil and gas, is likely to militate against a ban on foreign species, particularly in the private sector, even if the State bans them for their own use.

Set out below is a list of species of plants thought suitable for the region and given to those building their houses on the New District of Doha when the programme for constructing housing began there.

Botanical name	Common name
Trees
Acacia Arabica	Gum Arabic tree
Cassia Fistula	Golden tower tree
Casuarina Equisetifolia	Beefwood
Cordia Myxa	Plum
Delonix Regia	Flamboyant tree
Eucalyptus Camuldulensis	Red gum
E. Rudis	Desert gum
E. Sideroxylon	Red ironbark
E. Viminalis	Manna gum
Ficus Altissima	Fig tree
F. Nitida	Fig tree
Jacaranda Mimosifolia	Jacaranda
Ligustrum Japonicum	Waxleaf privet
Phoenix Dactylifera	Date palm
Prosposis Farcta	Mesquite
Schinus Molle	California pepper
Tamarix Aphylla	Tamarisk
Tipuana Tipu	Tipu
Thevetia Thevetiodes	Giant thevetin
Washington Filifera	California fan palm
W. Robusta	Mexican fan palm
Zizyphus Spina-Cristi	Jujube
Shrubs
Acacia Pendula	Weeping acacia
Bougainvillea Spectabilis – ‘Barbara Karst’	Bougainvillea
Buxus Macrophylla Japonica	Japanese boxwood
Carissa Grandiflora	Natal plum
Cassia Biflora	Senna
Clerodendrum Inerme
Dodonaea Viscosa	Hop bush
Lochnera Rosea	Periwinkle
Neroum Oleander – ‘Mrs. Roeding’	Oleander
Vinca Rosea
Zizyphus Nummularia	Jujube
Vines and ground covers
Abronia Umbellata	Sand verbena
Bougainvillea Spectabilis – ‘Barbara Karst’	Bougainvillea
Ficus Pumila (F. Repens)
Lantana Camara	Lantana
Mesembryanthemum Crystallinum	Ice plant
Rosmarinus Officinalis	Rosemary

These species were selected for being generally hardy, salt-tolerant and readily available in the area. There are other plants which have been introduced by the commercial nurseries or by private individuals bringing in plants with which they were previously familiar.

One of the ways in which species have been moved around is by the gardeners employed to look after private gardens. These gardeners have moved plants between the gardens they have been looking after, and this has resulted in a common palette found in many gardens. For instance, the Madagascar periwinkle is now commonly found all over the State, usually in window boxes where they make an attractive and colourful presentation. I can recall gardeners bringing them round and planting them, knowing that they originally came from government gardens.

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Grasses

Many people think that grass is a simple, universal plant. In fact there is a considerable quantity of grasses from which to make a selection. The specifying of grasses is extremely difficult for the Gulf in general and Qatar in particular for although Qatar has a hot, dry maritime climate, the conditions for planting can vary considerably with regard to the:

• quality of the soil mixture in which the grasses are planted,
• the underlying salinity – a characteristic which is increasing in its effect,
• the distance from the coast and the wind-borne saline content, and the
• depositing of wind-borne dust.

All these can alter the type of grass specified for a specific location or, in fact, the mix of grasses as there are a number of considerations which influence species selection. These will include, but are not limited to the:

• character of the climate, in the case of Qatar, a maritime desert climate,
• the pH value of the soil,
• the amount of traffic the grass is likely to receive,
• the amount of shade,
• whether it will be planted as seed, plugs or sods,
• the suitability of the leaves in contact with the skin,
• rate of growth,
• the ease and amount of maintenance required, particularly mowing and the application of fertiliser,
• the amounts of water required,
• its tolerance to over- and under-watering,
• the texture, colour and look of the lawn,
• its colour stability through the seasons, and
• whether there will be a need to overseed in winter, a technique adding a different grass in winter in order to maintain the colour of the lawn.

A number of grasses are likely to be usable in Qatar, either individually or as a mix. Because of the importance of this element of landscaping it is strongly advised to enquire of the suppliers how the grass is likely to deal with the issues noted above and, preferably, visits should be paid to established lawns.

Botanical name	Common name
Paspalum notatum	Bahia grass
Cynodon dactylon	Bermuda grass
Buchloe dactyloides	Buffalo grass
Axonopus affinis	Carpet grass
Eremochloa ophiuroides	Centipede grass
Pennisetum clandestinum	Kikuyu grass
Stenotaphrum secundatum	St Augustine grass
Zoysia matrella, japonica or tenuifolia	Zoysia grass

One final note and that is that I have seen artificial turf used in Qatar in areas that were required to look good all year round, as well as take considerable activity from children. Although the initial cost can be expensive, maintenance is minimal.

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Establishing gardens and the watering of plants

There is significant psychological benefit to be derived from the ability to enjoy – both visually and directly – private and public gardens. Some are lucky enough to have a private garden, but many do not have them and take advantage instead of both the formal, public gardens as well as roadside planting, particularly in the evening. It used to be a feature of roundabouts – the first public areas to be landscaped – that they would be filled with expatriate workers at night. It was also relatively common to see these workers with a flower tucked behind an ear.

Gardens consume considerable amounts of water. In Qatar, there is a significant interest in developing relatively lush gardens as a relief from both the arid character of the country as well as the heat of summer. But little thought is given to watering both in terms of the installation or a watering system as well as the process of watering.

One of the problems of developing housing in Qatar is that much of it is constructed for the rental market: the expatriates who have come to the country to participate in its development. For this reason, most house builders will design down, spending their resources with a mind on the initial development costs because they know that running costs – utilities, planting, staffing and the like – will be the responsibility of the tenants.

Developing for themselves is a different matter. In this case gardens are considered, but rarely are they dealt with from the point of view of the conservation of resources as this has rarely been an issue. But, as I have noted elsewhere, both the soil and water are scarce resources and need to be safeguarded.

With a little consideration there are a number of things that can be done to reduce the amounts of water used and to make the process of watering the garden easier. Much of this stems from the proper preparation of the garden.

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Preparation of the garden area

Although some housing sites are being established on old gardens – regrettably – there is unlikely to be sufficient ‘sweet soil’ to support modern planting requirements. In order to get over this owners have imported rawdha from other gardens and used this to fill their gardens. Due to the limited amount of rawdha available the Government placed a limit on the amount that could be moved though it was unable to monitor and police this practice adequately.

Today it is important to plan a garden prior to planting and not, as was the practice, cover the site with an equal layer of rawdha in order to enable landscape design decisions to be made later.

At its crudest, provision needs to be made for different depths of rawdha depending upon whether trees, shrubs, flowers or grasses are to be planted.

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Soil additives

In order to improve the quality of the soil it is advisable to incorporate compost with the soil. This can be of two kinds:

• organic compost, which can be obtained from farms around the country, and
• commercial compost which also can be of two types:
  • that which enriches the soil mix, and that
  • which improves the water-holding capacity and is generally in gel form.

Ensure that the rawdha and any admixtures are well mixed and in the correct quantities and proportions as directed by the manufacturers prior to installation.

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Principles of watering

Traditionally gardens are watered by hand from a hose attached to a standpoint. This is wasteful and can actually damage planting. Surface watering will produce a root system close to the surface, and this has two effects:

• firstly, the root system near the surface has the tendency to stop water moving down to a lower root system, and
• being near the surface, the roots are more likely to be affected by sun, heat and wind.

The aim should be to water at as low a level as practicable. There are two principles under which this can be effected:

• installing a watering system that feeds water at root level,
• watering by thoroughly soaking the planting on, say, a weekly basis rather than watering lightly on a daily basis. The amount of water and the frequency will, of course, depend on the plant species and the time of year.

Whatever systems are used for watering it is important to mulch the soil. This is generally effected in the West with commercial wood chips. I am not aware at the moment of what might be available in Qatar, but the principle is that about 50mm of a similar material is laid over the ground and around the plants in order to:

• reduce the heating effect of the sun, and scouring effect of the wind on the surface of the ground, which should
• keep the surface soil relatively cool.

In order to conserve water and soil nutrients it is wise to pull up weeds or, where they prove difficult to remove, treat them with a commercial compound that will kill them.

It is just as important to pull up weak plants for the same reason.

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Timing of watering

Whether using an automatic, buried or hand-delivered watering system it is preferable to water very early in the morning or, better, in the evening. This gives the water time to percolate into the soil and optimise its benefit to the root systems.

It is important not to water when the leaves and body of the plant are hot and if the sun is on them as this, combined with the water, physically damages the plant through the application of heated water.

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Installation of a watering system

Automatic watering systems are essentially of two types:

• underground, or
• pop-up, this being the more wide-spread.

The better of the two is the underground system of which there are a number of types suited to installation prior to the depositing of the soil and compost. Their great benefit is that they feed the water at the correct depth to encourage a healthy root system and, properly selected and installed, are less likely to suffer failures than a pop-up system.

It may be that the whole of the garden is not fed this way. Two other systems might be considered to supplement underground watering:

• firstly, the use of tubes for deeper roots and upturned pots installed adjacent to trees and plants in order to ensure water is fed at the correct depth for the specific root systems and,
• a hose pipe fitted with a spray has the benefit of occasional use in order to wash the dust from the leaves of the different plants and flowers.

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Provision of water storage

Water for landscaping is traditionally fed from ground or roof-located tanks and then applied to the planting with the aid of a small electric pump. It is usually the same water that is used in the household domestic water system although the Government has been using treated effluent water on its own landscaping, particularly areas to which the public do not normally have access.

Whatever system is considered for application, it is sensible to consider the location of a separate water storage system for the landscaping. It might be useful to locate this below ground level for two reasons. This is the best location for it if it is to be used to collect

• roof and flood water, and
• grey water from the household waste systems, particularly bath water.

Both these water sources will conserve the amounts of domestic water needed by the site as a whole.

It is possible that the quality of the water might need to be monitored and chemically balanced to ensure that alkaline chemicals from the household grey water do not affect the plants.

In addition it would be wise to construct the water tank with oil traps in order to keep surface water-borne contaminants at bay.

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Watering additives

I should also mention that there are additives which can be added to water in order to benefit plants. The amounts needed vary with species and manufacturers’ recommendations, but can be useful to supplement the nutrients within the soil.

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Additional information

There are a number of other things to consider when making the decision about designing and installing a landscaped garden. The first of these relate to basic considerations for the planting. Although the plant palette I have mentioned may be suited to the area, it is wise to look at other gardens and take professional advice when it comes to design and selection. These notes should also be considered:

• use plant material sparingly;
• use tiles, rocks, pebbles, pavers and desert plants in order to reduce reliance on water;
• bear in mind wind movement and shading from the wind in order to protect plants from dehydration;
• it is a requirement in the New District of Doha that water runoff is kept and dealt with inside the site boundaries;
• don’t plant too close to a wall as plants need air circulation to keep fungal infections down;
• if you want to rely on plants to make an accurate straight or curved line, remember that plants grow at different rates. In this case it makes sense to grow spare plants to replace any which do not grow as do the others, or which die;
• bear in mind which areas of the garden are in shade and sun through the day and seasons. Plants which like sun only need a few hours of sun a day, but plants which like shade often can take no more than a couple of hours of sun; and
• planting on slopes is likely both to create surface erosion as well as give less water to the root system. It is better to plant in terraces.

You can see from the above that there are many issues to consider when installing a garden. As I have stated elsewhere it is essential that these are dealt with professionally. It is imperative that the garden and interior of the building are considered together in order that each benefit the other.

It is important to make sure that the owner has an accurate drawing of all the utility cables, ducts and equipment below ground level in the garden. Not only will he need to know where things are when he wishes to make changes or in case of emergency, but his gardener will need to know in order that nothing below ground is damaged in the normal day-to-day activities associated with maintaining and improving the garden.

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Lighting and security

Finally, I should mention that it is imperative a coherent lighting and security system be considered and designed at the same time that the landscaping is designed. In this way, the necessary ductwork and below-grade installations may be co-ordinated with the watering system and carried out prior to the depositing of the rawdha and installation of the soft and hard landscaping.

more to be written…